MCH2022-06 - The League of the Papacy with the Frankish Kingdom

We shall now discuss separately the concrete situation of the both the Papacy and the Frankish Kingdom in order to understand such alliance.

THE PAPACY

The Byzantine Empire (or Byzantium) was the Eastern Roman Empire that existed throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Known simply as the Roman Empire (Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων) by its inhabitants and neighbors, the empire was centered on the capital of Constantinople and was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State.Byzantium, however, was distinct from ancient Rome, in that it was Christian and predominantly Greek-speaking, being influenced by Greek, as opposed to Latin, culture.

As the distinction between "Roman Empire" and "Byzantine Empire" is largely a modern convention, it is not possible to assign a date of separation, but an important point is when Emperor Constantine I's transfer in 324 of the capital from Nicomedia (in Anatolia) to Byzantium on the Bosphorus, which became Constantinople, "City of Constantine" (alternatively "New Rome"= Kaine Rome). The Roman Empire was finally divided in 395 AD after death of Theodosius I, thus this date is also very important if we look upon the Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire) as completely separated from the West.

After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), Constantinople (kainé róme) claimed to be the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Emperor Justinian I (also called the Great) (527-565) of the Byzantine Empire sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost Western half of the classical Roman Empire.The dream of Justinian was renovatio imperii (restoration of the Empire). It means restoring or reclaiming the former territories of the Roman Empire from the hands of its conquerors after 476. This was an ambitious goal and only  partially realized.

The RED area in the map on the left comprises the Easrtern half of the Roman Empire (Byzantine) while the YELLOW area was the extent of Justinian I’s renovatio imperii. Only the following territories were restored:

1.     The Vandal Kingdom in North Africa was reclaimed by Justinian I’s general Belisarius (ca. 500-565). It extended Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean.

2.     Ostrogothic Kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the Empire after being under barbarian control for over half a century. It was reclaimed by Belisarius, Narses, and other generals. 

3.     Southern Iberia was reclaimed, establishing the province of Spania. The prefect[1] Liberius (ca.545-ca.553) reclaimed it.

The aforementioned campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean. Justinian I was able to restore the splendor and Majesty of the Roman Empire even if not all of the former territories were reclaimed. During Justinian I’s reign,  Lazica, a region on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before, was annexed to the Byzantine empire.

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In the 5^th century, four forces threatened the Eastern Roman Empire from the outside:

1.     SLAVS: Byzantine historiographers[2] under Justinian I (527-565)) described them as tribes emerging from the area of the Carpathian Mountains, the lower Danube and the Black Sea, invading the Danubian provinces of the Eastern Empire.

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2.     AVAR: The Eurasian Avars or Ancient Avars were a highly organized nomadic confederacy of mixed origins. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit entourage of nomad warriors, an organization characteristic of Turko-Mongol groups. Although the name Avar first appeared in the mid-fifth century, the Avars of Europe enter the historical scene in the mid-sixth century AD, when they established a pax spanning considerable areas of Central and Eastern Europe.

3.     PERSIANS: the old hostilities renewed. In 605, the Sassanids expanded to the Bosphorus. The strategic importance of the Bosporus remains high, and control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history[3]. In 615, they claimed the Mediterranean provinces to the borders of Egypt and in 619, occupied Egypt proper.

The Sassanid Empire (dark green) in the map below had territories contested with the East Romans (medium green). Under the rule of Khosrau II, the light green are was also conqured.

The Sassanid Empire  was the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the Sasanian Dynasty from 224 to 651.

In the 6^th century, Emperor Heraclius I (610-641) was able to defeat the Persians decisively in a Holy war of 627 at Niniveh.

4.     ARABS

The Arabs destroyed the old Hellenistic-Roman unity of civilization. The Byzantine Empire was not able to withstand the powerful Arabian drive for expansion and extensive parts of its holdings were lost. Only Constantinople proper was defended successfully in heroic battles over the years (674-678) and thus saved the West from being overrun by the Arabs. From 717-718, they were defeated before Constantinople.

The Caliphate, 622–750

  Expansion under the Prophet Muhammad, 622–632

  Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphs, 632–661

  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750

In the face of these formidable threats, it is understandable that Byzantium was no longer able to protect Rome and Italy against the Lombardic attacks. Lombards founded a state in upper italy called Lombardy with its capital Pavia. Spoleto and Benevento already became two Lombardic dukedoms in the immediate vicinity of Rome.

Meanwhile, Ravenna was the became the seat of the Byzantine power in Italy from the end of the 6^th century up to 751, when the last exarch was put to death by the Lombards. An exarch was a Byzantine governor with extended authority of a Province. The prevailing situation frequently involved him in military operations

From 592-593, The Lombards besieged Rome and the city could not expect help from Byzantium who was also under the threats of the invaders. Pope Gregory the Great faced the Lombard as Pope Leo the Great faced the barbarians and and was successful. The Lombards withdrew from the city. Soon, Pope Gregory the Great was able to convert Lombards to Catholic Christianity with the help of the Lombard Catholic Queen Theolinda (ca.570-628).

Political tension remained. When King Liutprand (712-744) of the Lombards  resumed the old policy of expanding and subjugating all of Italy When Pope Gregory III (731-741) cried for help in vain again, Byzantium could not send troops. The pope [now, Pope Zachary (741-752)] asked help for the first time from the Frankish mayor of the palace, Charles Martel (ca.688-741). However, Charles Martel was an ally of the Lombards. He needed the Lombards against the Arabs who were threatening Southern France. Inevitably, help was denied because of political reasons. Pope Zachary the, could not do anything other than conclude a 20-year peace with King Liutprand.

Peace was also attained during the reign of the Lombard King Rachis (744-749) who eventually entered a monastery in Monte Cassino.  The respite ended when King Aistulf (749-756) succeeded Rachis and resumed old plans of conquest.

Pope Stephen II (752-757) cried again for help from the Franks and by this time, the political situation had already. Pepin III (the Short) (+768), son of Charles Martel, heeded the pope’s call.

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THE FRANKISH KINGDOM

Mayor of the Palace was an early medieval title and office, also called majordomo, from the Latin title maior domus ("superior of the house"), used most notably in the Frankish kingdoms in the 7^th and 8^th centuries.

During the 7^th century, the office of Mayor of the Palace developed into the true power behind the throne in Austrasia, the northeastern portion of the Kingdom of the Franks under the Merovingian dynasty. The Major Domo held and wielded the real and effective power to make decisions affecting the Kingdom, while in the mid to late Merovingian period, kings had been reduced to performing merely ceremonial functions, which made them little more than nominal kings or figureheads [rois faineants (do-nothing kings)].

The Pippinids (also called Arnulfings) are the members of a family of Frankish nobles who served as Mayors of the Palace, de facto rulers, of the Frankish kingdoms of Neustria and Austrasia that were nominally ruled by the Merovingians. The dynasty is regarded to have been founded by St. Arnulf (582-640) (Hence, Arnulfings), Bishop of Metz in the early 7^th century, who wielded a great deal of power and influence in the Merovingian kingdom. Arnulf’s son  married St. Begga,  the daughter of Pepin of Landen (Pepin I), and their son was Pepin of Heristal. It is from Pepin II's grandfathers that the dynasty receives its earlier (pre-Martel) names: Arnulfing or Pippinid[4]. The dynasty effectively ended with the death of Pepin II , who was succeeded by his illegitimate son, Charles Martel. Pepin had legitimate grandsons at his death, but they failed to win power, and the line died out. Charles Martel went on to found a new line of the family, which historians named the Carolingian dynasty after Martel.

Charles Martel (714-741) defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Tours and Poitiers (732). He held the uncontested leadership of the whole Frankish state. He saved Europe from Islam  by decisively defeating the moslems in 711. he also destroyed the Visigothic kingdom, and had already conquered southern France. He was called “The Hammer”, the uncrowned king of the West. He had two sons who ruled as powerful dictators, Carloman (741-747) and Pepin III (the short) (741-768). The former entered the monastery and renounced public life. Therefore, latter became the sole ruler. Austrasia and Neustria (Western part of the Merovingian Frankish Kingdom) were reunited in one kingdom under  Pepin the short who took the crown of the Merovingians in 751 to establish the line of Carolingian kings.

Pepin the short required a higher authority to justify his lack of bloodline in taking the crown which could only be supplied by the Pope whose authority had been increased since the work of Wynfrith Boniface. He asked Pope Zachary’s consented who in turn supported him. Pepin the short convoked the Diet of Soissons (751-752) and had elected himself king of the Franks.

First, Wynfrith Boniface laid the foundation of the league of the Papacy with the Frankish Kingdom. Remember that his mission to the Germans was under the protection of the Franks and with the blessing of the Pope. Then, the Franks turned to Rome for greater authority. Now, the papacy, despite numerous tensions had continued to look toward Byzantium, now dissolved its ties with the East and turned completely to the West for help. Pope Stephen II’s call was heeded by Pepin the short. The Franks, a former ally of the Lombards, will now fight the Lombards for the Papacy. There was a separation of the papacy from the Byzantine Empire. All these marked an epochal change in European history.

The alliance between the papacy and the Franks was concluded on January 7, 754 at PONTHION.Pepin the short promised two things: the help against the threats of Aistulf and the rest of the Lombards; and the “return” of areas conquered by the Lombards (esp Ravenna). Remember that there were lands (ie Exarchate of Ravenna) belonging to Byzantium which the Lombards conquered. It may mean conflict if the Lombards give these territories back to Rome. All these, the Franks dedicated to Rome, not to Byzantium.

The Diet of Quierzy (754) resolved to protect against the Lombards. Pepin the short formally promised Pope Stephen II the territories of central Italy (ie Tuscany, Ravenna, Venice, Istria, Spoleto and Benevento). These would be the nucleus of the future papal states.

In the same year, peaceful negotiation with Aistulf failed that led to his eventual defeat. Aistulf rose again after two years but was completely subjugated. The promise of returning the land to the pope now posed many questions. Byzantium had the legal claims of those lands. The Byzantines’ argument was derived from Constantine the Great himself who made Constantinople heir of the ancient Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire was not only claiming Rome and Ravenna as Roman imperial territory but basically all Italy and the West. So, they accused the alliance of the poe with the Franks as treason. The Eastern Roman Empire had been the de facto claimant of the Roman Empire after the Fall of the West (476) since the 6^th to the 8^th centuries.

In the face of these ancient byzantine claims, the Pope needed to present a more powerful argument. The Donatio Constantini proved to be the one. The Donation of Constantine  is a forged Roman imperial decree by which the emperor the Great supposedly transferred the authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the pope. When Constantine transferred his residence from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople) around 330, he allegedly ceded to Pope Sylvester I (313-335) the whole western half of the empire. It is based on a 5^th century Sylvester legend. According to the invented narrative, Emperor Constantine attributed his miraculous cure from leprosy to pope Sylvester I and in return he transferred the control over Rome and the West to the pope. The intention for this forgery is to protect the papacy against Byzantium’s claim and to guarantee its political and ecclesiastical independence in the West. During the Middle Ages, the document was often cited in support of the Roman Church's claims to spiritual and earthly authority. 

In the 11^th century. Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla and the other humanists are credited with first exposing the forgery with solid philological arguments, although doubts on the document's authenticity had already been cast by this time. Scholars have since dated the forgery between the eighth and ninth centuries. It is not clear however who fabricated such forgery. It can either be fabricated in the chancellories of Stephen II or Paul I. The place of its creation is not attainable as well.

The Donatio Constantini became the legal justification for the Church in Rome. It underscored the papal primacy and the universal dominion of the popes.

In the year 754 as well, after the pope called for help and the  Franks responded to crush the Lombards, Pope Stephen II repeated the anointing of Pepin the Short and his sons Carloman and Charles [see family tree; different from the previous persons of the same name.] and awarded them the title Patricius Romanorum[5]. This title could normally be awarded only by the Byzantine emperor. It meant something when the pope gave this title to the Franks. It means a total non-recognition of the rights of the Byzantine Empire. The task of the Patricius Romanorum is to guarantee the protection of the western Church.

Pepin the short’s son Carloman (+771) died early and his son Charles assumed even greater power when he was crowned emperor in 800, thus becoming one of the most prominent figures in European history. He was called Charles the Great or Charlemagne (768-814).

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[1] Praetorian prefect (Latin:praefectus praetorio) was the title of a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief aides.

[2]  Procopius of Caesarea, Jordanes and Theophylact Simocatt.

[3] Notably, the Russo–Turkish War (1877–1878), as well as of the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I.

[4] Pepin or Pippin are synonymous

[5] The word patricius comes from pater ("father"). So, they became the “Father of all Rome” so to speak.

MCH2022-04 - The Anglo-Saxon Church and its Continental Mission

The Church in Britain had been organized since the ancient Roman Empire. The Picts, Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain after the Roman Legion was recalled from Britain in 407. They drove the Christian population to Wales or the continent specifically in Britanny.

A heptarchy, the rule of seven kingdoms, was founded by the year 450 which removed every trace of Christianity. The Heptarchy consisted of:

1. Mercia – ruled by the Angles

2. East Anglia – ruled by the Angles

3. Northumbria – ruled by the Angles

4. Essex – ruled by the Saxons

5. Sussex – ruled by the Saxons

6. Wessex – ruled by the Saxons

7. Kent – ruled by the Jutes

Rome from the continent and the Iro-Scottish Church sent missionaries to Britain by the end of the 6^th century. There were conflicts between the Roman and Iro-Scottish missionaries but it was soon resolved.

A. Roman Mission

Pope Gregory the Great[1] (590-604) sent Augustine[2] (+604), the prior of the monastery of St. Andrew (Later, Archbishop of Canterbury), to England together with forty monks. King Ethelbert of Kent (ca.560-616) received them kindly. Eventually, King Ethelbert with 10,000 of his subjects was baptized on Christmas day 597 by Augustine himself. Soon, Pope Gregory the Great sent more missionaries to Britain.

The initial success inspired Gregory the Great to reveal his organizational plan for the English/British Church. He established London (in Canterbury) as the principal see, and Augustine could consecrate 12 other bishops. Furthermore, a bishop could be sent to York so that he could create 12 new bishoprics. Such organizational plan at such an early stage in the conversion process was premature. The Archbishop of York never had 12 subordinate bishops at this time. The choice of London was based on its traditional Roman significance but in reality London was deserted at this time and only a small Anglo-Saxon settlement stood west of London. The importance of London would be seen in the 7^th century as a national capital.

Because of the premature plans, the Roman mission to England came to the brink of failing. King Ethelbert’s successor Eadbald (616-640), who was not a Christian — had been converted but went back to his pagan faith, although he ultimately did become a Christian king. Eadbald outraged the church by marrying his stepmother, which was contrary to Church law, and by refusing to accept baptism.

At about the same time, the three pagan sons of the late king of the Essex, who had converted, were openly hostile to Christianity. Meanwhile, Raedwald (+624) Raedwald, king of East Anglia, who had been baptized in Kent, kept two places of worship: one altar to offer sacrifice to Christ and another one for the pagan gods.

With Kent, Essex and East Anglia reverting to paganism, the three remaining Christian bishops (Laurence of Canterbury, Justus of Rochester and Mellitus of London) decided to leave. Progress was slow and in the succeeding centuries other missions  (apart from Rome) came to Britain.

We can describe the Augustinian Mission to England/ Britain in two points:

1.     A detailed Papal instruction regarding the process of acculturating pagans to Christianity was followed.

-       The temples were not destroyed but were converted for Christian use.

-       The sacrifice of oxen to devils was substituted with the permission to kill animals in gratitude to God’s generosity.

2. Augustine’s antagonism against the native British Church

-       The Romano-Britons[3] were not recent converts but were Christians for centuries. Augustine rebuked them for not converting the barbarians that led them to be pushed to the Western part of Britain.

-       Augustine reproved the Christian Britons for celebrating Easter at a different date from the Roman. The Britons refused to yield in this matter and both agreed to ask for a sign from heaven. Then, a blind man was cured not by the Britons but by Augustine. This incident still remained less impressive for the Britons.

-       Augustine’s attitude towards the Britons revealed an unattractive sense of superiority in the face of reversals, all but abandoned their mission.

B. Other Mission to Britain

1). The Mission in the South of England

We can say that the Roman mission through Augustine was less than successful. Furthermore, the conversion in southern England was independent of Canterbury and Augustine’s mission. For example, when Christianity came to East Anglia, it came from Gaul, and the first bishop of East Anglia came from Burgundy. The ascetic tradition of the East Angles came from the Iro-Scottish (Celtic) missionaries. The Anglo-Saxon monks inherited the desire for the perigrinatio pro Christo from the Celtic missionaries as well.

Christianity came to Wessex, not through Augustine, but through the missionary Birinus (ca.600-649), Apostle to the West Saxons (Wessex). He was probably of German origin. He baptized the King of Wessex in 635 and took his Episcopal seat at Dorchester.

2). The Mission in the North of England

Two stages marked the coming of Christianity to the North:

a). Mission from the south ® unsuccessful

A certain Roman missionary named Paulinus (+644) was sent by Pope Gregory the Great to Canterbury in 601. He became the first Bishop of York.  Little is known of Paulinus' activities in the following two decades. He accompanied Ethelburg of Kent, sister of King Eadbald of Kent, on her journey to Northumbria to marry King Edwin of Northumbria (ca.586-632/633), and eventually succeeded in converting Edwin to Christianity. Paulinus also converted many of Edwin's subjects and built some churches. One of the women Paulinus baptized was a future saint, Hilda of Whitby. Following Edwin's death in 633, Paulinus and Ethelburg fled Northumbria, abandoning the infant church. Paulinus returned to Kent, where he became Bishop of Rochester. After his death in 644, Paulinus was venerated as a saint.

b). Iro-Scottish (Celtic) Mission ® Success!

When King Edwin’s enemies were overthrown, the English kingdom of Northumbria was re-established with Oswald (ca.604-642) as king. He lived in exile prior to his reign and received baptism from the Irish monk-priests.He was immediately sent to Iona (the monastery founded by St. Columba) for assistance so that his people might be converted as well. Consequently, Aidan (+651) was sent. He was consecrated as bishop at Lindisfarne (know as the Holy Island since the 12^th century). He was the Apostle of Northumbria and was the founder and first bishop of the monastery on the island of Lindisfarne in England.

Other Irish missionaries came after Aidan. King Oswald himself acted as the interpreter between the evangelizing monks and his people. In 635, missionaries from the Northumbrian Church went south to convert the pagan Mercians.

PROBLEM: Cultural differences between the Irish missionaries and the Roman missionaries became a source of conflict. Three differences stood out:

1. The date of Easter

2. The form of tonsure

3. The rite of baptism

The Synod of Whitby (664), a seventh century Northumbrian synod, concluded the differences.  King Oswy of Northumbria ruled that his kingdom would calculate Easter and observed the monastic tonsure according to the customs of Rome, rather than the customs practiced by Iona and its satellite institutions. The tradition of Peter, holder of the keys of the gates of heaven, was preferred over the tradition of the apostle John , who held not those keys, whose tradition passed down through Columba.

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In summary, the Kingdom of Kent was the first to be converted to Christianity (624-633). Wessex and Northumbria followed. Sussex was converted in 680-690. The conversion of the entire Anglo-Saxon was soon completed. The Anglo-Saxon monastic schools and nunneries became intellectual centers.

The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (or the Ecclesiastical History of the English People) is a work in Latin by Bede the Venerable (672-735) on the history of the Christian Churches in England, and of England generally; its main focus is on the conflict between Roman and Celtic Christianity. It is considered to be one of the most important original references on Anglo-Saxon history. It is believed to have been completed in 731, when Bede was approximately 59 years old.

ENGLISH (ANGLO-SAXON) MISSION TO THE CONTINENT

Soon, the Anglo-Saxon themselves sent missionaries to evangelize the other parts of Europe. However, there were striking differences between the Anglo-Saxon and Iro-Scottish Mission. While the Celtic missionaries proceeded without a plan or system and concentrated on winning converts, the Anglo-Saxons had a systematized method of evangelization:

-       Their mission was sanctioned by the Pope himself (Church support) and supported by the Frankish Ruler (State support). They were equipped with papal letters of recommendation and royal guarantees of protection.

-       They tried to convert the leader of the people before converted his subjects because the latter was bound to follow the former.

-       By emphasizing authority and ecclesiastical organization, the Anglo-Saxon missionaries represented the Roman heritage.

ST. WILFRID OF YORK (ca.633-709)

-       He is the first notable Anglo-Saxon missionary

-       He was a Northumbrian noble who entered religious life as a teenager and studied at Lindisfarne, at Canterbury, in Gaul, and at Rome.

-       He returned to Northumbria (ca. 660) and became the abbot of the monastery at Ripon.

-       In 664, he acted as spokesman for the Roman "party" at the Synod of Whitby, and became famous for his speech advocating that the Roman method for calculating the date of Easter should be adopted.

-       He was then appointed as the Bishop of Northumbria.  But he chose to be consecrated in Gaul because of the lack of what he considered to be validly consecrated bishops in England at that time.

-       For the next nine years Wilfrid discharged his Episcopal duties, founded monasteries, built churches, and improved the liturgy.

-       First journey to Rome: In 678, Bishop Wilfrid went to Rome to appeal. His diocese was divided and he was deposed by Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury. Apart from this, he obtained papal authorization to preach to the Frisians as we shall see later.

-       His notable disciples were Egbert and Wigbert followed him to Frisia in 689.

-       Willibrord (another Wilfrid’s disciple) 12 disciples followed him to Frisia after having obtained the papal authorization in 690.

-       He spent the next few years in Selsey, where he founded an episcopal see and converted the pagan inhabitants of the Kingdom of Sussex to Christianity.

-       Second journey to Rome: He consecrated Willibrord as the first bishop of Utrecht and renewed the papal sanction in 695

-       Wilfrid died in 709 and was venerated as a saint.

-       He ruled a large number of monasteries, and claimed to be the first Englishman to introduce the Rule of Saint Benedict into English monasteries. Some modern historians see him mainly as a champion of Roman customs against the customs of the British and Irish churches, others as an advocate for monasticism.

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The Church had planted the seed of Christianity in England and from there, two names stand out in the story of conversion of the Germanic people East of the Rhine river.

1. Willibrord
2. Wynfrith Boniface

These are English monks who under the papal authority sent out on their respective missions. In other words, they are natives of England, who received the Word and will now share the Word. They were authorized by the pope. Remember, that in the Anglo-Saxon mission, the missionaries moved in a more systematic way as compare to that of the Iro-Scottish mission.

But what is striking is that: England has just been recently converted and with recent memories of paganism at this time of their mission to the continent. How did this come about? Actually, the mission was not planned and it was almost by accident, at least in the beginning.

-       In 678 - Bishop Wilfrid went to Rome to appeal. His diocese was divided and he was deposed by Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury. On his way, he passed by modern-day Netherlands called Frisia where the Frisians remained. He preached the Gospel and gained some converts.

-       In 690 – an effective English mission to Frisia began, when Willibrord and other english monks were sent by Wilfrid after obtaining papal authorization.

It is important to note that the English mission did not originate in England but in Ireland. There was actually an English monastery at Clonmelsh (in Ireland).

Q: Where geographically is Frisia?

A: The Germanic group Frisians are natives to the coastal parts of The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany. They inhabit an area known as Frisia. Frisians have a reputation for being blond-haired. The Frisian languages are still used by 500.000 speakers; dialects of Frisian are recognized as official languages in both the Netherlands and Germany.

SCENARIO

The Frisian region is beyond the control of the Franks who are in modern day France. By the late 7^th century the Merovingian kings, descendants of Clovis, with power weakening, were mere “rois faineants” (do nothing kings). The real power was in the hands of the mayors of the palace of these kings.

When Willibrord arrived in Frisia, Pepin II (+714) was the mayor of the palace. He had control over most of France and also Western Frisia including Utrecht and he had the ambition to extend his power further north to Frisia.

In Frisia and even in some parts of France, paganism/heathenism was still flourishing. This was the scenario when St. Egbert(+729)[4] and the other English monks came from Ireland to preach the Gospel in Frisia.

WILLIBRORD (ca. 658-739)

Willibrord was a Northumbrian missionary saint, known as the "Apostle to the Frisians" in the modern Netherlands. He became the first Bishop of Utrecht and died at Echternach, Luxembourg.

A disciple of St. Wilfrid, he was sent to the Abbey of Ripon at a very young age. Later, he joined the Benedictines. He spent the years between the ages of 20 and 32 in the Abbey of Rathmelsigi which was a center of European learning in the 7^th century. During this time, he studied under St. Egbert, who sent him and twelve other companions to Christianize the pagan North Germanic tribes of Frisia, at the request of Pepin II, the Christian Mayor of the Palace of the Merovingian kings.

Willibrord went immediately to Rome to get papal sanction for his mission and the authority to establish an ecclesiastical province. He eventually became archbishop to the Frisians. With him, are the relics of saints in his bags to replace the idols of his converts. The Frisians were converted in a short span of time. He built numerous churches, among them a monastery at Utrecht, where he established his cathedral and he was counted as the first Bishop of Utrecht (in the Netherlands). In 698, he established an abbey at Echternach (in Luxemburg).

They were English monks. How can they preach in the language of the Frisians? He had the power to create subordinate dioceses and to consecrate bishops. Willibrord’s commission was clear: to establish Christianity among the Frisians. His Intention to convert the Danes did not materialize. After Rome, he went on a retreat in Echternach.

While on a Carolingian-sponsored mission to Frisia with the purpose of trying to convert the pagan Frisians, a political move was made by the Franks. Once the Frisians had converted to Christianity, the Franks could gain control of the important trade port Dorestad, which they had never conquered. In 716, the pagan Radbod (+719), king of the Frisians, re-took possession of Frisia, burning churches and killing many missionaries. After the death of Radbod, Willibrord returned to resume his work, aided by Wynfrith Boniface, and under the protection of Charles Martel. The success of Willibrord can be attributed to the assistance of the Frankish rulers, the authority of the Pope and the receptivity of the Frisians.

WINFRID BONIFACE (ca.680-752)

Winfrid or Wynfrith was the greatest of the Anglo-Saxon Continental missionaries. He played a very important role in the conversion of Germany that’s why he acquired the title “Apostle of the Germans”. He prepared the union between the Frankish empire and the Papacy as we would see later.

He was born in Wessex and reared as a monk in the monasteries of Exeter and Nursling where he received higher education. He was under Willibrord’s mission to Frisia and later, he had his own group to Germany. He sought papal approval from Pope Gregory II (731-741) who gave him the permission to preach to Germany. The Pope changed his name into Boniface (from a Latin word which means “fortunate”.

He went on a mission to Hesse and Thuringia which were not completely pagan. The Iro-Scottish (Celtic) and Frankish itinerant missionaries had a mission here as well but their impermanency hindered their missionary work.

Between 723-732, he resumed his missionary works. Hesse had papal recommendation and special guarantees of protection from Charles Martel. He cut down an oak tree sacred to the god Thor. This action is said to mark the beginning of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples.

               

In 732, Winfrid Boniface returned to Rome because he needed greater authority. Consequently, he was consecrated bishop and took an oath of fidelity to St. Peter and his successors on the same year. The oath was in the form used by bishops within the immediate jurisdiction of the ppe in central Italy. It was unusual for a bishop of a faraway mission to swear that way. This is called the Suburbicarian Bishops’ Oath which was customarily taken by the seven bishops in the immediate vicinity of Rome [Albano, Ostia, Velletri-Segni, Porto-Santa Rufina, Palestrina, Sabina-Poggio-Mirteto, Frascati (Tusculum)]. The oath is pledged especially by those with close ties and unity to Rome. He asked the pope’s advice on matters regarding his mission, sent reports of his activities and humbly gave his loyalty to each new pope.

Pope Gregory II appointed him as the archbishop-at large with the power to consecrate bishops. He established monasteries but cannot establish bishoprics probably because the Frankish episcopate was threatened by a foreigner and powerful Boniface.

In 737/738, he went to Rome for the third to Rome and was appointed apostolic legate for Bavaria, Hesse and Thuringia with the special charge to institute in these areas a tighter ecclesiastical organization. Boniface was called missus sancti petri (Legate of St. Peter).

He presided over the Concilium Germanicum I (743). It was the first major Church synod to be held in the Eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms. It was called by Carloman who ruled Austrasia (Eastern part of the Frankish Kingdom) at an unknown location, and presided over by Boniface, who was solidified in his position as leader of the Austrasian church.

Participation in the Concilium was restricted to Boniface's supporters, and among those invited were the bishops of Carloman's Austrasia. Strengthened by the absence of his enemies, Boniface succeeded in having stricter guidelines adopted, but the effort to re-appropriate church property was thwarted by bishops and nobility alike. The measures adopted at the Concilium included:

1.     Archbishops and bishops with a fixed see were to be appointed to replace the noble laypersons who had received dioceses under Charles Martel.

2.     Bishops were required to visit their parishes, with the aid of auxiliary bishops.

3.     Clergy were required to appear annually before the bishop to give a reckoning of their personal and official activities.

4.     On Maundy Thursday, bishops were to consecrate oil (chrism) during a special mass, with which all the parishes in their diocese were to be supplied.

5.     Clergy were not allowed to carry weapons, and were forbidden to hunt.

6.     The Rule of Saint Benedict became mandatory for all monasteries.

Many of the Concilium's measures were geared toward a stricter organization of the Frankish church, and to enforce such organization annual synods were called for, as well as real bishops and archbishops and the enforcement of canon law.

Between 738-747, Winfrid Boniface devoted himself to organization and reform of the Frankish kingdom as he established new bishoprics. The mission of Boniface was both clear and vague.

1. It was clear that it was a mission to the German people living East of the Rhine and North of the Danube
2. It was vague because there were no established diocese even after his appointment as archbishop but later in his life the See of Mainz was established for him.

His last days were filled with disappointments:

1. Peppin II proceeded with the ecclesiastical reform without consulting Winfrid Boniface. Consequently, Boniface withdrew.
2. Frankish nobles had prevented him from taking over the vacant bishopric of Cologne in 745. So, in 748, he chose Mainz instead. He made his ministerial and supervisory work in both Mainz and in Fulda (his favorite establishment).
3. He no longer seems to have participated in the great political decisions.

 

In 752, Winfrid Boniface (now established as Bishop Boniface of Mainz) was surprised and killed by angry non-Christian Frisians at Dokkum. The murderers believed that they had acted lawfully because Boniface had destroyed their places of worship. He was buried in Fulda. In the same year, the momentous bond was established between Papacy and Frankish kingdom, a bond whose foundation Boniface laid.

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[1] Pope Gregory the Great was the first pope to consciously pay attention to the Germanic tribes.

[2] Augustine here is not St. Augustine of Hippo but Augustine of Canterbury.

[3] The Britons (sometimes Brythons or British) were the Celtic people culturally dominating Great Britain from the Iron Age through the Early Middle Ages. Romano-Briton is a term to denote the cultural link between the Roman empire and the inhabitants of Britain.

[4] St. Egbert (+729) was an Anglo-Saxon monk of Northumbria and Bishop of Lindisfarne. As a youth he went on a perigrinatio, or pilgrimage far from home, traveling to Ireland. There was a plague and he was spared so he devoted his life as a monk in Ireland until his last breath. He was motivated to have mission to the Frisians but he never went.