MCH2024-04 The Iro-Scottish Church and its Continental Mission

The Germanic tribes, the Huns, the Franks and the Merovingian kingdom of Clovis were regarded by citizens of the Roman Empire as mere barbarians. We shall now advance to the formation of the Iro-Scottish Church. However, before we proceed, it is inevitable to distinguish the historic and contemporary terminologies pertaining to the Iro-Scottish Church. We must have a distinction between geographical and political divisions.

The British Isles is a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe that include the islands of Great Britain and Ireland and over six thousand smaller isles.

Great Britain or simply Britain is an island composed of England, Scotland and Wales. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles.

England is a country (therefore, a political division) and the capital is London.

Wales is a country and the capital is Cardiff.

Scotland or Scotia Minor is country and the capital is Edinburgh.

Ireland or Scotia Maior or Hibernia (a classic Latin term) is an island west of Britain. In the present times,

it is politically divided into:

a.     Northern Ireland – a country which is part of the United Kingdom and the capital is Belfast.

b.     Ireland/ Republic of Ireland/ Republic of Eire is another country and the capital is Dublin.

United Kingdom is country composed of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland; and the capital

is London.

Continental Europe or simply the continent is the European continent itself excluding the British Isles

The Ireland (Scotia maior) and Scotland (Scotia minor) were never conquered by the Romans. They had conquered the Celtic people in much of Britain but never attempted to extend their territory over the island called Hibernia.  Despite the boast of the Roman General Agricola that he could take Ireland with one legion and some auxiliaries, the land remained outside the Roman world.

Since the Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Church in the East (Byzantine Church) had the advantage in time in evangelizing the barbarians. The Eastern Church had the Gothic mission while the West had the Celtic mission. The Celtic territory is composed of 6 components:

1. Scotland
2. Ireland
3. Isle of Man
4. Wales
5. Cornwall
6. Britanny (France)

Basically, the Celtic mission was the Iro-Scottish mission.

PALLADIUS (+457/461)

A certain Prosper of Aquitaine (ca. 390-455) noted the following statement in his chronicles (431): “Palladius was sent in 431 by Pope Celestine I after his ordination as first bishop to the Scots (=Irish) believing in Christ.” With this, we can assume that there were existing Iro-Scottish groups of Christians, who were, however, without a bishop since no bishop is appointed to a diocese unless there is already an organized body of the faithful. We can infer that there were already Christian missionaries sent for the Celtic Church before the appointment of the bishop in 431.

At this time, Pelagianism had been taking grounds. In a nutshell, it is the belief that original sin did not taint human nature and that mortal will is still capable of choosing good or evil without special Divine aid. Probably, Palladius was commissioned to take care of the orthodoxy (soundness of doctrine) and fight Pelagianism.

Bishop Palladius died after a brief and unsuccessful mission. He might had died on his way home or might had been martyred by the Irish. Though there is a degree of historical uncertainty about the life and ministry of Palladius, we are, however, certain of two things:

1. that Christianity arrived in Ireland before the appointment of Bishop Palladius and
2. that it was not Pallladius but St.Patrick who has gone down in history as the “Apostle of Ireland”.

ST. PATRICK (ca.385-461)

History and myth are not easy to separate in his case. Patrick was from Britain, the son of a Roman official. He was only 16 years old when the Iro-scots, on a plundering raid kidnapped him and took him as a slave to Ireland. For his 6 years of stay there, he had become acquainted with both the country and the language before he escaped and returned to Britain in 407.Afterwards, he became a monk. In a dream, he heard the voices of the Irish calling him and admonishing him to proclaim to them the Good News. He finally went back to Ireland as a bishop replacing the deceased Palladius. He was “the Apostle of Ireland”.

The term apostle is derived from the New Testament Greek noun ἀπόστολος or apostolos, meaning ‘the one who is sent forth as a messenger”. Truly, St. Patrick was the Apostle of Ireland.

1. He baptized thousands.
2. He ordained countless priests and bishops.
3. He received the sons and daughters of  kings as monks and virgins.
4. He established dozens of monasteries throughout Ireland.
5. He made Armagh in Northern Ireland the Metropolitan see and Ecclesiastical center (444).
6. When he died in 461, Ireland was not only Christianized but also ecclesiastically organized.

TRIVIA: What is the connection between St. Patrick and the shamrock?

According to legend, St. Patrick used a shamrock to explain God.  The shamrock, which looks like clover, has three leaves on each stem.  St. Patrick told the people that the shamrock was like the idea of the Trinity – that in the one God there are three divine persons:  the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.  The shamrock was sacred to the Druids, a member of the priestly class in ancient Britain, Ireland, and Gaul, so St. Patrick’s use of it in explaining the Trinity was very wise.

THE SHIFT IN THE POST-PATRICIAN[1] IRISH CHURCH

St. Patrick imposed an ecclesiastical organization based on bishops. Bishops were appointed to lead a Christian flock of a specific territory. After St. Patrick’s death in 461, the ecclesiastical organization based on bishops was replaced by the one based on abbots. Therefore, the external organization of the Church was tied to the numerous monasteries. The abbots became leaders of the Irish church. The abbots consecrated one of their subordinate monks as suffragan bishops to perform purely Episcopal function of ordination and consecration.

Eventually, the Iro-Scottish Church became a complicated structure: great monasteries formed federations but there were also Churches allied to great families (churches sponsored by a particular noble family) as well as “free” churches (independent churches). Bishops exercised a pastoral role over their churches and the clergy. Following the lines of the local tribal groupings, what happened was determined by the  local conditions. There was no master plan.

THE RISE OF IRISH MONASTICISM

By the 6^th century, countless of monasteries became advanced schools of intellectual life and piety. They produced countless saints, that’s why Ireland was the Insula Sanctorum. They produced countless scholars, that’s why Ireland was the Insula Doctorum. The Golden Age of the Irish Church lasted until 740.

Inspite of its strong anchoritic[2] character, Irish monasticism was not opposed to the world but rather has a missionary spirit:

-       Monks conducted schools and celebrated mass

-       Monks should be priests. In Ireland, the very ideal of ministering priests were the monk-priests.

-       Celibacy and hourly prayers were first peculiar only to the Irish monk-priest but in the course of time it became obligatory in the West.

Irish monasticism has three marked characteristics:

1. Severe Ascetic Exercises

-       Irish Monk-Priests were reputed to have spent nights standing in ice-cold water, while reciting the psalms.

-       They denied food for their bodies.

-       They had long vigils.

-       They  engaged in harsh pilgrimages

-       They practiced the “Vigilia crucis” which is standing in prayer with arms extended cross-like for long periods.

-       They practiced repeated genuflections.

-       They had self-flagellations.

-       They had prolonged total fast.

-       They influenced the laity outside Ireland in practicing private, secret and voluntary penitence and private confession. Before, only public penance were done by major lay offenders.

2. Emphasis on Penance

-       Penitentials[3] (Manuals for confessors) existed in Ireland in the 6^th century before it was introduced to the Continent. It provided the clergy with practical instruction in the care of the soul. It consisted of a catalogue of sins with the corresponding penances.

-       Penitentials gave a list of appropriate penances for specific sins. For instance, the penance for murderers was 7 years of bread and water; the penance for a mother who kills her own child was 12 years of bread and water; the penance for eating horse meat was 4 years of bread and water.

-       The Celtic monks practiced individual confession of sins to a priest followed by absolution and imposition of a penance.

-       There was a practice of commutation of penalties. It means relieving the severity of penance. Ex. Prayer can be done instead of eating bread and water. But the Franks objected and instead of prayer the payment of fines was imposed.

-       Perigrinatio pro Christo (Pilgrimage for Christ) signifies a holy pilgrimage. It was a peculiar Irish practice by which monks would leave the security of their monastery to live in voluntary exile in strange places among strange peoples or in places where there were no people at all. These rugged bearded monks with their tonsured head and long flowing hair and tall travelling staff offered a strange picture. Over their shoulders on a strap they carried a water bottle and a leather bag in which they carried their books and around their neck they wore a capsule with relic and a vessel for the storing of the holy consecrated bread. They prayed and studied along their journey. They utilized every opportunity to win soul.

-       Generally, they did not stay long in one place, and their mission, therefore, could not reach any depth.

-       The peregrini (pilgrim monks) were not missionaries in the ordinary sense, yet those who travelled to the East can be called missionary monks since they visited people and preach them the Gospel.

-       Monasteries became center of Christian life in a semi-pagan environment.

-       [We will see a more systematic approach with the missionary activities of the Anglo-Saxon missionaries.]

3. The Irish Monastery became a universally acknowledged Center of Learning.

-       The pedagogy in learning Latin from books was developed by studying the grammar and word lists. The holy books, the Bible and ceremonials were all in Latin. This was brought to the court of Charlemagne (768-814) by the English monk Alcuin (+804) and became a major influence on the subsequent learning of the universal language of the Middle Ages.

-       Celtic monks did not only study manuscripts but copied them.

-       They provided biblical and grammatical commentaries which went with them to the Continent.

COLUMBAN THE YOUNGER (530-615)

He was the most important of the Iro-scottish travelling missionaries and founder of the monasteries in the continent. He stands as an exemplar of Irish missionary activity in early medieval Europe. He spread among the Franks a Celtic monastic rule (Rule of St. Columban) and Celtic penitential practices for those repenting of sins, which emphasized private confession to a priest, followed by penances levied by the priest in reparation for the sin.

The island of Iona in the west coast of Scotland served as the Columban’s center of conversion of the Picts[4].

In 590, he started a perigrinatio religiosa pro Christo, a holy pilgrimage to the continent together with twelve companions just like the 12 apostles of Christ.

The field of St. Patrick's labors was the most remote part of the then known world. The seeds he planted in faraway Ireland, which before his time was largely pagan, bore a rich harvest: whole colonies of saints and missionaries were to rise up after him to serve the Irish Church and to carry Christianity to other lands.

He worked in Brittany, Gaul and Burgundy promoting Christian life among the Frankish nobilities and the clergy. He founded numerous monasteries most notably Luxeuil (France) and Bobbio (Italy) for which he devised a rigorous rule (Rule of St. Columban) which was brought to the continent. This rule reflected the Irish asceticism and emphasized severity, particularly physical severity. It stated as its guiding principle: “the chief part of the monk’s rule is mortification. Violation of the rule was to be punished harshly.” His severe asceticism inspired young men to become monks.

In 610, he criticized the amoral life of the Merovingian King Theuderic II (+613) and his feared grandmother Brunhilde. So, he was sent to exile and flee from Luxeuil. He went to pagan territories which are present day France, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Italy. He met many kings and bishops and opened important monasteries which spawned daughter monasteries.

In 613, he moved to upper Italy where he founded the abbey of BOBBIO, and he died there in 615. He influenced the religious life of the Frankish kingdom through the confessional and penitential practices.

THE RULE OF ST. COLUMBAN

The Monastic Rule of St. Columban is much shorter than that of St. Benedict, consisting of only ten chapters. The first six of these treat of obedience, silence, food, poverty, humility, and chastity. In these there is much in common with the Benedictine code, except that the fasting is more rigorous.

Chapter VII deals with the Choir Offices. Sunday Matins in winter consisted of seventy-five psalms and twenty-five antiphons  ̶  three psalms to each antiphon. In spring and autumn these were reduced to thirty-six, and in summer to twenty-four, fewer were said on week days. The day hours consisted of Terce, Sext, None and Vespers. Three psalms were said at each of these Offices, except Vespers, when twelve psalms were said.

Chapter X regulates penances (often corporal) for offenses, and it is here that the Rule of St. Columban differs so widely from that of St. Benedict. Stripes or fasts were enjoined for the smallest faults. The habit of the monks consisted of a tunic of undyed wool, over which was worn the cuculla, or cowl, of the same material. A great deal of time was devoted to various kinds of manual labor, not unlike the life in monasteries of other rules.

The Rule of St. Columban was destined before the close of the century to be superseded by that of St. Benedict. For several centuries in some of the greater monasteries the two rules were observed conjointly.

Excerpts from the Rule:

He who fails to say grace at table or to answer “Amen” will be punished with six blows. Also, he who speaks while eating, not because of the needs of another brother, will be punished with six blows.

If through negligence, forgetfulness ore carelessness a monk spills an unusual amount of liquids or solids, he will be given the long pardon in church by prostrating himself without moving any limb while the other monks sing twelve psalms at the twelfth hour.

A monk who coughs while chanting the beginning of a psalm will be punished with six blows. Also, he who bites the cup of salvation with his teeth, six blows. He who receives the blessed bread with unclean hands, twelve blows. If a monk comes late to prayer, fifty lashes. If he comes noisily, fifty lashes...If he makes noise during prayer, fifty lashes.

__________________________

Rule of St. Columba 6th Century 

Even if it did not quite "save civilization", Ireland was one of the monastic centers of Europe in the early middle ages. In fact, the Church in Ireland was dominated by monasteries and by monastic leaders. Other Irish monks became missionaries and converted much of Northern Europe St. Columba (521 -597) and his followers converted Scotland and much of northern England. Columba did not leave a written rule. But the following rule, attributed to him, was set down much later. It does reflect the spirit of early Irish Monasticism. 

 Be alone in a separate place near a chief city, if thy conscience is not prepared to be in common with the crowd. 

 Be always naked in imitation of Christ and the Evangelists. 

 Whatsoever little or much thou possessest of anything, whether clothing, or food, or drink, let it be at the command of the senior and at his disposal, for it is not befitting a religious to have any distinction of property with his own free brother. 

 Let a fast place, with one door, enclose thee. 

 A few religious men to converse with thee of God and his Testament; to visit thee on days of solemnity; to strengthen thee in the Testaments of God, and the narratives of the Scriptures. 

 A person too who would talk with thee in idle words, or of the world; or who murmurs at what he cannot remedy or prevent, but who would distress thee more should he be a tattler between friends and foes, thou shalt not admit him to thee, but at once give him thy benediction should he deserve it. 

 Let thy servant be a discreet, religious, not tale-telling man, who is to attend continually on thee, with moderate labour of course, but always ready. 

 Yield submission to every rule that is of devotion. 

 A mind prepared for red martyrdom [that is death for the faith]. 

 A mind fortified and steadfast for white martyrdom. [that is ascetic practices] Forgiveness from the heart of every one. 

 Constant prayers for those who trouble thee. 

 Fervour in singing the office for the dead, as if every faithful dead was a particular friend of thine. 

 Hymns for souls to be sung standing. 

 Let thy vigils be constant from eve to eve, under the direction of another person. 

 Three labours in the day, viz., prayers, work, and reading. 

 The work to be divided into three parts, viz., thine own work, and the work of thy place, as regards its real wants; secondly, thy share of the brethen's [work]; lastly, to help the neighbours, viz., by instruction or writing, or sewing garments, or whatever labour they may be in want of, ut Dominus ait, "Non apparebis ante Me vacuus [as the Lord says, "You shall not appear before me empty."]. 

 Everything in its proper order; Nemo enim coronabitur nisi qui legitime certaverit. [For no one is crowned except he who has striven lawfully.] 

 Follow alms-giving before all things. 

 Take not of food till thou art hungry. 

 Sleep not till thou feelest desire.  Speak not except on business. 

 Every increase which comes to thee in lawful meals, or in wearing apparel, give it for pity to the brethren that want it, or to the poor in like manner. 

 The love of God with all thy heart and all thy strength; 

 The love of thy neighbour as thyself 

 Abide in the Testament of God throughout all times. 

 Thy measure of prayer shall be until thy tears come; 

 Or thy measure of work of labour till thy tears come; 

 Or thy measure of thy work of labour, or of thy genuflexions, until thy perspiration often comes, if thy tears are not free. 

ALSO REFER TO: Regula Columbani (kindly click).

Source: A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland II, i (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1873), pp. 119-121.

o-o-O-o-o

This physical severity did not recommend itself to the monks on the continent. Mixed monasteries, which combined Columban and Benedictine rules, appeared in the 6^th century and in the end, it was more moderate flexible rule of St. Benedict that prevailed and became the predominant form of monasticism in medieval Europe.

---

[1] Post-patrician means “after St. Patrick’s era”.

[2] Anchorite signifies "to withdraw", "to depart into the rural countryside". Therefore, it denotes someone who, for religious reasons, withdraws from secular society so as to be able to lead an intensely prayer-oriented, ascetic, and—circumstances permitting—Eucharist-focused life.

[3] Penitentials are books or set of church rules concerning the Christian sacrament of penance, a "new manner of reconciliation with God" that was first developed by Celtic monks in Ireland in the sixth century AD.

[4] The Picts were a group of Late Iron Age and Early Mediaeval people living in what is now eastern and northern Scotland.

MCH2024-03 The Rule of Saint Benedict

THE RULE OF SAINT BENEDICT

N.B. See Excerpt of the Rule (The Medieval Reader by N. Cantor, pp.34-41)

Saint Benedict of Nursia (c.480–547) is the father of Western Monasticism because of his main achievement, the “Rule” containing precepts for his monks  which became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. He founded twelve communities for monks at Subiaco, about 40 miles to the east of Rome, before moving to Monte Cassino in the mountains of southern Italy. His “Rule” is heavily influenced by the writings of John Cassian, and shows strong affinity with the Rule of the Master.

The Rule of Saint Benedict (Regula Benedicti) is a book of precepts written by St. Benedict of Nursia for monks living communally under the authority of an abbot. Since about the 7^th century it has also been adopted by communities of women. During the 1500 years of its existence, it has become the leading guide in Western Christianity for monastic living in community.

The spirit of St Benedict's Rule is summed up in the motto of the Benedictine Confederation: pax ("peace") and the traditional ora et labora ("pray and work").  

Compared to other precepts, the Rule provides a moderate path between individual zeal and formulaic institutionalism; because of this middle ground it has been widely popular. Benedict's concerns were the needs of monks in a community environment: namely, to establish due order, to foster an understanding of the relational nature of human beings, and to provide a spiritual father to support and strengthen the individual's ascetic effort and the spiritual growth that is required for the fulfillment of the human vocation, theosis.

INFLUENCES

John Cassian is a Christian theologian and one of the ‘desert fathers’. He wrote two major spiritual works, the Institutions and the Conferences. In these, he codified and transmitted the wisdom of the Desert Fathers of Egypt. These books were written at the request of Castor, Bishop of Apt, of the subsequent Pope Leo I, and of several Gallic bishops and monks. His books were written in Latin, in a simple, direct style. They were swiftly translated into Greek, for the use of Eastern monks, an unusual honor.

A. The Institutions (De institutis coenobiorum) deal with the external organization of monastic communities.

Books 1-4 discusses clothing, prayer and rules of monastic life.

Books 5-12 are rules on morality, specifically addressing the eight vices - gluttony, lust, avarice, pride, wrath, envy, acedia, and boasting - and what to do to cure these vices.

B. the Conferences (Collationes patrum in scetica eremo) deal with "the training of the inner man and the perfection of the heart." It summarized the important conversations that Cassian had with elders from Scetis about principles of the spiritual and ascetic life. This book addresses specific problems of spiritual theology and the ascetic life. It was later read in Benedictine communities before a light meal, and from the Latin title, Collationes, comes the word collation in the sense of "light meal."

Furthermore, the Regula Magistri or Rule of the Master is an anonymous sixth-century collection of monastic precepts. It was also regarded to influence the Rule of Saint Benedict. It is no longer in active use by any monastic community.

But it also, and this persuaded most religious communities founded throughout the Middle Ages to adopt it. As a result, the Rule of Benedict became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. For this reason, Benedict is often called the founder of western Christian monasticism.

ANALYSIS OF THE BENEDICTINE RULE

Of the seventy-three chapters comprising the Rule, nine treat of the duties of the abbot, thirteen regulate the worship of God, twenty-nine are concerned with discipline and the penal code, ten refer to the internal administration of the monastery, and the remaining twelve consist of miscellaneous regulations.

The Rule opens with a prologue or hortatory preface, in which St. Benedict sets forth the main principles of the religious life, namely: the renunciation of one's own will and the taking up of arms under the banner of Christ. He proposes to establish a "school" in which the science of salvation shall be taught, so that by persevering in the monastery till death his disciples may "deserve to become partakers of Christ's kingdom".

In Chapter 1 are defined the four principle kinds of monks: (1) Cenobites, those living in a monastery under an abbot; (2) Anchorites, or hermits, living a solitary life after long probation in the monastery; (3) Sarabites, living by twos and threes together, without any fixed rule or lawfully constituted superior; and (4) Gyrovagi, a species of monastic vagrants, whose lives spent in wandering from one monastery to another, only served to bring discredit on the monastic profession. It is for the first of these classes, as the most stable kind, that the Rule is written.

Chapter 2 describes the necessary qualifications of an abbot and forbids him to make distinction of persons in the monastery except for particular merit, warning him at the same time that he will be answerable for the salvation of the souls committed to his care.

Chapter 3 ordains the calling of the brethren to council upon all affairs of importance to the community.

Chapter 4 summarizes the duties of the Christian life under seventy-two precepts, which are called "instruments of good works" and are mainly Scriptural either in letter or in spirit.

Chapter 5 prescribes prompt, cheerful, and absolute obedience to the superior in all things lawful, which obedience is called the first degree of humility.

Chapter 6 deals with silence, recommending moderation in the use of speech, but by no means prohibiting profitable or necessary conversation.

Chapter 7 treats of humility, which virtue is divided into twelve degrees or steps in the ladder that leads to heaven. They are: (1) fear of God; (2) repression of self-will; (3) submission of the will to superiors; (4) obedience in hard and difficult matters; (5) confession of faults; (6) acknowledgment of one's own worthlessness; (7) preference of others to self; (8) avoidance of singularity; (9) speaking only in due season; (10) stifling of unseemly laughter; (11) repression of pride; (12) exterior humility.

Chapters 9-19 are occupied with the regulation of the Divine Office, the opus Dei to which "nothing is to be preferred", or Canonical Hours, seven of the day and one of the night. Detailed arrangements are made as to the number of Psalms, etc., to be recited in winter and summer, on Sundays, weekdays, Holy Days, and at other times.

Chapter 19 emphasizes the reverence due to the presence of God.

Chapter 20 directs that prayer in common be short.

Chapter 21 provides for the appointment of deans over every ten monks, and prescribes the manner in which they are to be chosen.

Chapter 22 regulates all matters relating to the dormitory, as, for example, that each monk is to have a separate bed and is to sleep in his habit, so as to be ready to rise without delay, and that a light shall burn in the dormitory throughout the night.

Chapter 23-30 deal with offences against the Rule and a graduated scale of penalties is provided: first, private admonition; next, public reproof; then separation from the brethren at meals and elsewhere; then scourging; and finally expulsion; though this last is not to be resorted to until every effort to reclaim the offender has failed. And even in this last case, the outcast must be received again, should he so desire, but after the third expulsion all return is finally barred.

Chapter 31 and 32 order the appointment of a cellarer and other officials, to take charge of the various goods of the monastery, which are to be treated with as much care as the consecrated vessels of the altar.

Chapter 33 forbids the private possession of anything without the leave of the abbot, who is, however, bound to supply all necessaries.

Chapter 34 prescribes a just distribution of such things.

Chapter 35 arranges for the service in the kitchen by all monks in turn.

Chapter 36 and 37 order due care for the sick, the old, and the young. They are to have certain dispensations from the strict Rule, chiefly in the matter of food.

Chapter 38 prescribes reading aloud during meals, which duty is to be performed by such of the brethren, week by week, as can do so with edification to the rest. Signs are to be used for whatever may be wanted at meals, so that no voice shall interrupt that of the reader. The reader is to have his meal with the servers after the rest have finished, but he is allowed a little food beforehand in order to lessen the fatigue of reading.

Chapter 39 and 40 regulate the quantity and quality of the food. Two meals a day are allowed and two dishes of cooked food at each. A pound of bread also and a hemina (probably about half a pint) of wine for each monk. Flesh-meat is prohibited except for the sick and the weak, and it is always within the abbot's power to increase the daily allowance when he sees fit.

Chapter 41 prescribes the hours of the meals, which are to vary according to the time of year.

Chapter 42 enjoins the reading of the "Conferences" of Cassian or some other edifying book in the evening before Compline and orders that after Compline the strictest silence shall be observed until the following morning.

Chapters 43-46 relate to minor faults, such as coming late to prayer or meals, and impose various penalties for such transgressions.

Chapter 47 enjoins on the abbot the duty of calling the brethren to the "world of God" in choir, and of appointing those who are to chant or read.

Chapter 48 emphasizes the importance of manual labor and arranges time to be devoted to it daily. This varies according to the season, but is apparently never less than about five hours a day. The times at which the lesser of the "day-hours" (Prime, Terce, Sext, and None) are to be recited control the hours of labour somewhat, and the abbot is instructed not only to see that all work, but also that the employments of each are suited to their respective capacities.

Chapter 49 treats of the observance of Lent, and recommends some voluntary self-denial for that season, with the abbot's sanction.

Chapters 50 and 51 contain rules for monks who are working in the fields or traveling. They are directed to join in spirit, as far as possible, with their brethren in the monastery at the regular hours of prayers.

Chapter 52 commands that the oratory be used for purposes of devotion only.

Chapter 53 is concerned with the treatment of guests, who are to be received "as Christ Himself". This Benedictine hospitality is a feature which has in all ages been characteristic of the order. The guests are to be met with due courtesy by the abbot or his deputy, and during their stay they are to be under the special protection of a monk appointed for the purpose, but they are not to associate with the rest of the community except by special permission.

Chapter 54 forbids the monks to receive letters or gifts without the abbot's leave.

Chapter 55 regulates the clothing of the monks. It is to be sufficient in both quantity and quality and to be suited to the climate and locality, according to the discretion of the abbot, but at the same time it must be as plain and cheap as is consistent with due economy. Each monk is to have a change of garments, to allow for washing, and when traveling shall be supplied with clothes of rather better quality. The old habits are to be put aside for the poor.

Chapter 56 directs that the abbot shall take his meals with the guests.

Chapter 57 enjoins humility on the craftsmen of the monastery, and if their work is for sale, it shall be rather below than above the current trade price.

Chapter 58 lays down rules for the admission of new members, which is not to be made too easy. These matters have since been regulated by the Church, but in the main St. Benedict's outline is adhered to. The postulant first spends a short time as a guest; then he is admitted to the novitiate, where under the care of a novice-master, his vocation is severely tested; during this time he is always free to depart. If after twelve month' probation, he still persevere, he may be admitted to the vows of Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience, by which he binds himself for life to the monastery of his profession.

Chapter 59 allows the admission of boys to the monastery under certain conditions.

Chapter 60 regulates the position of priests who may desire to join the community. They are charged with setting an example of humility to all, and can only exercise their priestly functions by permission of the abbot.

Chapter 61 provides for the reception of strange monks as guests, and for their admission if desirous of joining the community.

Chapter 62 lays down that precedence in the community shall be determined by the date of admission, merit of life, or the appointment of the abbot.

Chapter 64 orders that the abbot be elected by his monks and that he be chosen for his charity, zeal, and discretion.

Chapter 65 allows the appointment of a provost, or prior, if need be, but warns such a one that he is to be entirely subject to the abbot and may be admonished, deposed, or expelled for misconduct.

Chapter 66 provides for the appointment of a porter, and recommends that each monastery should be, if possible, self-contained, so as to avoid the need of intercourse with the outer world.

Chapter 67 gives instruction as to the behavior of a monk who is sent on a journey.

Chapter 68 orders that all shall cheerfully attempt to do whatever is commanded them, however hard it may seem.

Chapter 69 forbids the monks to defend one another.

Chapter 70 prohibits them from striking one another.

Chapter 71 encourages the brethren to be obedient not only to the abbot and his officials, but also to one another.

Chapter 72 is a brief exhortation to zeal and fraternal charity

Chapter 73 is an epilogue declaring that this Rule is not offered as an ideal of perfection, but merely as a means towards godliness and is intended chiefly for beginners in the spiritual life.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BENEDICTINE RULE

1.     The Rule has a unique spirit of BALANCE, MODERATION and REASONABLENESS (ἐπιείκεια, epieikeia)

-       It manifested its wonderful discretion and moderation, its extreme reasonableness, and its keen insight into the capabilities as well as the weaknesses of human nature.

-       There are no excesses, no extraordinary asceticism, no narrow-mindedness, but rather a series of sober regulations based on sound common sense.

-       This is contrary to the austerity and asceticism of the monks of Egypt.

2.     ON FOOD: With regard to food, the Egyptian ascetics reduced it to a minimum, many of them eating only twice or thrice a week, whilst Cassian describes a meal consisting of parched vetches with salt and oil, three olives, two prunes, and a fig, as a "sumptuous repast" (Coll. vii, 1). St. Benedict, on the other hand, though he restricts the use of flesh-meat to the sick, orders a pound of bread daily and two dishes of cooked food at each meal, of which there were two in summer and one in winter. And he concedes also an allowance of wine, though admitting that it should not properly be the drink of monks (Chapter 40).

3.     ON CLOTHING: St. Benedict's provision that habits were to fit, to be sufficiently warm, and not too old, was in great contrast to the poverty of the Egyptian monks, whose clothes, Abbot Pambo laid down, should be so poor that if left on the road no one would be tempted to take them (Apophthegmata, in P.G. LXV, 369).

4.     IN THE MATTER OF SLEEP: The Egyptian monks regarded diminution[1] as one of their most valued forms of austerity, St. Benedict ordered from six to eight hours of unbroken sleep a day, with the addition of a siesta in summer. The Egyptian monks, moreover, often slept on the bare ground, with stones or mats for pillows, and often merely sitting or merely reclining, as directed in the Pachomian Rule, whilst Abbot John was unable to mention without shame the finding of a blanket in a hermit's cell (Cassian, Coll. xix, 6). St. Benedict, however, allowed not only a blanket but also a coverlet, a mattress, and a pillow to each monk. This comparative liberality with regard to the necessaries of life, though plain and meagre perhaps, if tested by modern notions of comfort, was far greater than amongst the Italian poor of the sixth century or even amongst many of the European peasantry at the present day.

St. Benedict's aim seems to have been to keep the bodies of his monks in a healthy condition by means of proper clothing, sufficient food, and ample sleep, so that they might thereby be more fit for the due performance of the Divine Office and be freed from all that distracting rivalry in asceticism which has already been mentioned.

There was, however, no desire to lower the ideal or to minimize the self-sacrifice that the adoption of the monastic life entailed, but rather the intention of bringing it into line with the altered circumstances of Western environment, which necessarily differed much from those of Egypt and the East. The wisdom and skill with which he did this is evident in every page of the Rule, a learned and mysterious abridgement of all the doctrines of the Gospel, all the institutions of the Fathers, and all the Counsels of Perfection".

5.     COLLECTIVISM: St. Benedict perceived the necessity for a permanent and uniform rule of government in place of the arbitrary and variable choice of models furnished by the lives and maxims of the Fathers of the Desert. And so we have the characteristic of collectivism, exhibited in his insistence on the common life, as opposed to the individualism of the Egyptian monks. One of the objects he had in view in writing his Rule was the extirpation of the Sarabites and Gyrovagi, whom he so strongly condemns in his first chapter and of whose evil lives he had probably had painful experience during his early days at Subiaco.

On the Types of Monks (Chapter 1)

aa)    Cenobites -  They live in a monastery, serving under a Rule and an Abbot.

bb)   Anchorites or Hermits – They live a solitary life after long probation in the monastery.

cc)    Sarabites – They live by two’s and three’s together, without any fixed rule or lawfully constituted superior; and

dd)   Gyrovagi- a species of monastic vagrants, whose lives spent in wandering from one monastery to another, only served to bring discredit on the monastic profession. It is for the first of these classes, as the most stable kind, that the Rule is written.

6.     STABILITY: To further the aim of collectivism,  he introduced the vow of Stability, which becomes the guarantee of success and permanence. It is only another example of the family idea that pervaded the entire Rule, by means of which the members of the community are bound together by a family tie, and each takes upon himself the obligation of persevering in his monastery until death, unless sent elsewhere by his superiors.

It secures to the community as a whole, and to every member of it individually, a share in all the fruits that may arise from the labors of each monk, and it gives to each of them that strength and vitality which necessarily result from being one of a united family, all bound in a similar way and all pursuing the same end.

Thus, whatever the monk does, he does it not as an independent individual but as part of a larger organization, and the community itself thus becomes one united whole rather than a mere agglomeration of independent members.

7.     CONVERSION OF LIFE: The vow of Conversion of Life indicates the personal striving after perfection that must be the aim of every Benedictine monk. All the legislation of the Rule, the constant repression of self, the conforming of one's every action to a definite standard, and the continuance of this form of life to the end of one's days, is directed towards "putting off the old man and putting on the new", and thereby accomplishing the conversio morum which is inseparable from a life-long perseverance in the maxims of the Rule.

8.     OBEDIENCE: The practice of obedience is a necessary feature in St. Benedict's idea of the religious life, if not indeed its very essence. Not only is a special chapter of the Rule devoted to it, but it is repeatedly referred to as a guiding principle in the life of the monk; so essentials it that it is the subject of a special vow in every religious institute, Benedictine or otherwise.

In St. Benedict's eyes it is one of the positive works to which the monk binds himself, for he calls it labor obedientiae (Prologue). It is to be cheerful, unquestioning, and prompt; to the abbot chiefly, who is to be obeyed as holding the place of Christ, and also to all the brethren according to the dictates of fraternal charity, as being "the path that leads to God" (Chapter 71).

It is likewise extended to hard and even impossible things, the latter being at least attempted in all humility. In connection with the question of obedience there is the further question as to the system of government embodied in the Rule. The life of the community centers round the abbot as the father of the family. Much latitude with regard to details is left to "discretion and judgment", but this power, so far from being absolute or unlimited, is safeguarded by the obligation laid upon him of consulting the brethren - either the seniors only or else the entire community - upon all matters affecting their welfare.

And on the other hand, wherever there seems to be a certain amount of liberty left to the monks themselves, this, in turn, is protected against indiscretion by the repeated insistence on the necessity for the abbot's sanction and approval.

What Kind of Man the Abbot ought to be (Chapter 2)

Chapter 2 describes the necessary qualifications of an abbot and forbids him to make distinction of persons in the monastery except for particular merit, warning him at the same time that he will be answerable for the salvation of the souls committed to his care.

9. POVERTY AND CHASTITY: The vows of Poverty and Chastity, though not explicitly mentioned by St. Benedict, as in the rules of other orders, are yet implied so clearly as to form an indisputable and essential part of the life for which he legislates. Thus by means of the vows and the practice of the various virtues necessary to their proper observance, it will be seen that St. Benedict's Rule contains not merely a series of laws regulating the external details of monastic life, but also all the principles of perfection according to the Evangelical Counsels.

10. BINDING POWER OF THE RULE: With regard to the obligation or binding power of the Rule, we must distinguish between the statutes or precepts and the counsels. By the former would be meant those laws which either command or prohibit in an absolute manner, and by the latter those that are merely recommendations. It is generally held by commentators that the precepts of the Rule bind only under the penalty of venial sin, and the counsels not even under that. Really grave transgressions against the vows, on the other hand, would fall under the category of mortal sins. It must be remembered, however, that in all these matters the principles of moral theology, canon law, the decisions of the Church, and the regulations of the Constitutions of the different congregations must be taken into consideration in judging of any particular case.

______________________

REQUIRED READING:

Prologue of the Rule of St. Benedict

What, dearest brethren, can be sweeter to us than this voice of the Lord inviting us? See, in His loving kindness, the Lord showeth us the way of life. Therefore, having our loins girt with faith and the performance of good works, let us walk His ways under the guidance of the Gospel, that we may be found worthy of seeing Him who hath called us to His kingdom (cf 1 Thes 2:12).

If we desire to dwell in the tabernacle of His kingdom, we cannot reach it in any way, unless we run thither by good works. But let us ask the Lord with the Prophet, saying to Him: "Lord, who shall dwell in Thy tabernacle, or who shall rest in Thy holy hill" (Ps 14[15]:1)?

After this question, brethren, let us listen to the Lord answering and showing us the way to this tabernacle, saying: "He that walketh without blemish and worketh justice; he that speaketh truth in his heart; who hath not used deceit in his tongue, nor hath done evil to his neighbor, nor hath taken up a reproach against his neighbor" (Ps 14[15]:2-3), who hath brought to naught the foul demon tempting him, casting him out of his heart with his temptation, and hath taken his evil thoughts whilst they were yet weak and hath dashed them against Christ (cf Ps 14[15]:4; Ps 136[137]:9); who fearing the Lord are not puffed up by their goodness of life, but holding that the actual good which is in them cannot be done by themselves, but by the Lord, they praise the Lord working in them (cf Ps 14[15]:4), saying with the Prophet: "Not to us, O Lord, not to us; by to Thy name give glory" (Ps 113[115:1]:9). Thus also the Apostle Paul hath not taken to himself any credit for his preaching, saying: "By the grace of God, I am what I am" (1 Cor 15:10). And again he saith: "He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord" (2 Cor 10:17).

Hence, the Lord also saith in the Gospel: "He that heareth these my words and doeth them, shall be likened to a wise man who built his house upon a rock; the floods came, the winds blew, and they beat upon that house, and it fell not, for it was founded on a rock" (Mt 7:24-25). The Lord fulfilling these words waiteth for us from day to day, that we respond to His holy admonitions by our works. Therefore, our days are lengthened to a truce for the amendment of the misdeeds of our present life; as the Apostle saith: "Knowest thou not that the patience of God leadeth thee to penance" (Rom 2:4)? For the good Lord saith: "I will not the death of the sinner, but that he be converted and live" (Ezek 33:11).

Now, brethren, that we have asked the Lord who it is that shall dwell in His tabernacle, we have heard the conditions for dwelling

there; and if we fulfil the duties of tenants, we shall be heirs of the kingdom of heaven. Our hearts and our bodies must, therefore, be ready to do battle under the biddings of holy obedience; and let us ask the Lord that He supply by the help of His grace what is impossible to us by nature. And if, flying from the pains of hell, we desire to reach life everlasting, then, while there is yet time, and we are still in the flesh, and are able during the present life to fulfil all these things, we must make haste to do now what will profit us forever.

We are, therefore, about to found a school of the Lord's service, in which we hope to introduce nothing harsh or burdensome. But even if, to correct vices or to preserve charity, sound reason dictateth anything that turneth out somewhat stringent, do not at once fly in dismay from the way of salvation, the beginning of which cannot but be narrow. But as we advance in the religious life and faith, we shall run the way of God's commandments with expanded hearts and unspeakable sweetness of love; so that never departing from His guidance and persevering in the monastery in His doctrine till death, we may by patience share in the sufferings of Christ, and be found worthy to be coheirs with Him of His kingdom.

---

[1] The act or process of diminishing; a lessening or reduction.